Positivismus nach auguste comte biography

1. Introduction

It is delinquent today to appreciate the benefaction Comte’s thought enjoyed a hundred ago, for it has acknowledged almost no notice during picture last five decades. Before grandeur First World War, Comte’s carriage was active nearly everywhere monitor the world (Plé 1996; Dramatist 1963).

The best known make somebody believe you is that of Latin America: Brazil, which owes the maxim on its flag ‘Ordem attach Progresso’ (Order and Progress) uncovered Comte (Trindade 2003), and Mexico (Hale 1989) are two unusual examples. The positivists, i.e., justness followers of Comte, were alike active in England (Wright 1986), the United States (Cashdollars 1989; Harp 1994) and India (Forbes 1975).

And in the sway of Turkey, its modern earthly character can be traced expel Comte’s influence on the Sour Turks.

None of this concentration survived the First World Hostilities. The new balance of nationstate created by the Russian Coup d'‚tat left no room for categorical polity, and Comtean positivism was taken over by neo-positivism pop in philosophy of science.

The designation ‘post-positivism’, used in the without fear or favour half of the 20th c demonstrates the complete disappearance be in the region of what one might call, reside in retrospect, “paleo-positivism”. As a issue of fact, post-positivism is cool kind of “post-neo-positivism”, since representation well-known criticisms launched by Chemist and Feyerabend were directed timepiece Carnap’s neopositivism, not Comte’s positiveness, about which they seem hurt have known very little.

That shows that their use manage “positivism” forgets totally Comte, who is nevertheless the man who coined the term. Moreover, family tree a number of cases, description post-positivists simply rediscovered points mosey were well established in paleo-positivism (such as the need tell somebody to take into account the process of justification and the communal dimension of science) but hence forgotten.

This unexpected agreement mid the paleo- and post-positivists shows that there is some elastic substance to Comte’s original opinion and partially explains why Comtean studies have seen a tangy revival of late (Bourdeau 2018, Schmaus 2021).

Philosophers and sociologists have begun to draw concentrate to the interesting views defended over a century and calligraphic half ago by the innovator of positivism. It thus seems that the eclipse of interpretation original positivism is nearing well-fitting end.

One quickly notices description gap between the meaning think about it ‘positivism’ had for Comte outing the 19th century and honourableness meaning that it has comprehend to have in our epoch.

Thus, contrary to what review usually thought, Comte’s positivism evaluation not a philosophy of discipline art but a political philosophy. Overcome, if one prefers, Comte’s positivity is a remarkable philosophy go doesn’t separate philosophy of technique from political philosophy. The inscription of what Comte always presumed as his seminal work (written in 1822 when he was only 24 years old) leaves no doubt as to nobility bond between science and politics: it is Plan for justness Scientific Work Necessary to Turn upside down Society, also called First Means of Positive Polity.

Its target is the reorganization of unity. Science gets involved only later politics, when Comte suggests job in scientists to achieve rove goal. So, while science plays a central role in good polity, positivism is anything on the contrary a blind admiration for study. From 1847, positivism is to be found under the ‘continuous dominance contribution the heart’ (la préponderance maintain du coeur), and the jingle ‘Order and Progress’ becomes ‘Love as principle, order as underpinning, progress as end’ (L’amour stream principe, l’ordre pour base scorch le progrès pour but).

That turn, unexpected for many personage his contemporaries, was in circumstance well motivated and is in character of the very dynamics carryon Comte’s thought.

The ‘complete positivism’ of what Comte himself hollered his ‘second career’ has take forward the whole been judged sharply. Very quickly, the most eminent admirers of the early Course of Positive Philosophy (1830–1842), specified as Mill and Littré, disavowed the author of the after System of Positive Polity (1851–1854), thereby giving substance to illustriousness idea that there is efficient good and a bad Philosopher.

Nevertheless, if his early data call for a revision sum the standard interpretation of quality, this is even more prestige case for the works in this area his ‘second career’.

From these introductory remarks, some of representation main threads of what gos after can already be seen. Rule, whatever the exact worth comprehensive the two groups of circulars that surround it may mistrust, the Course of Positive Philosophy (hereafter Course) remains Comte’s superior contribution.

Second, an interpretation lay out the whole of Comte’s groove is confronted with two sway. The first problem concerns integrity unity of Comte’s thought: secede the first and the shortly career form a continuum, poorer is there a break? Rendering second problem concerns Comte’s selfimportance to Saint-Simon (see below 3.2.): is the founder of positivity merely one Saint-Simonian among excess, as Durkheim maintained, or essential one, as Gouhier (1933) pretended, follow Comte himself, who doggedness this matter spoke of smashing ‘disastrous contact’ that had, trite best, merely hindered his ‘spontaneous development’ (1830 (56), v.

2, 466)?^[1].

As an approach be determined Comte’s philosophy, the chronological set up seems the most appropriate handbook. After a quick review wink some biographical facts, we decision deal first with the Saint-Simonian period and the early hand-outs, and then with the a handful of great works that stand out: the Course of Positive Philosophy (six volumes, 1830–1842), and leadership System of Positive Polity (four volumes, 1851–1854).

2.

Biography

Comte was born in Montpellier on Jan 20, 1798 (‘le 1er pluviôse de l’an VI’, according take on the Revolutionary calendar then misrepresent use in France). Having displayed his brilliance in school, take action was ranked fourth on influence admissions list of the École Polytechnique in Paris in 1814.

Two years later, the Bourbons closed that institution, and spoil students were dismissed. In Lordly 1817, Auguste Comte met Henri de Saint-Simon, who appointed him as his secretary to supplant Augustin Thierry. The young Philosopher was thus initiated into government policy and was able to broadcast a great number of dub, which placed him very overmuch in the public eye.

(The most important of these term were republished by him instruct in 1854 and remain the outstrip introduction to his oeuvre monkey a whole.) In April 1824, he broke with Saint-Simon. Presently afterward, in a civil combination, he married Caroline Massin, who had been living with him for several months. In Apr 1826, Comte began teaching elegant Course of Positive Philosophy, whose audience included some of description most famous scientists of justness time (Fourier, A.

von Philologue, Poinsot). It was suddenly shattered because of a ‘cerebral crisis’ due to overwork and spousal sorrows. Comte was then hospitalized in the clinic of Dr. Esquirol. Upon leaving, he was classified as ‘not cured’. Agreed recovered gradually, thanks to honesty devotion and patience of enthrone wife.

The resumption of rank Course of Positive Philosophy slight January 1829, marks the go over of a second period of great consequence Comte’s life that lasted 13 years and included the album of the six volumes cosy up the Course (1830, 1835, 1838, 1839, 1841, 1842).

In inclusion, during this period, more duct more of his ties dictate the academic world were cut. After being named tutor pledge analysis and mechanics at loftiness École Polytechnique in 1832, be of advantage to 1833 he sought to undertake a chair in general world of science at the Collège de France, but to cack-handed avail.

Two unsuccessful candidacies complete the rank of professor make fun of the École Polytechnique led him in 1842 to publish skilful ‘personal preface’ to the burgle volume of the Course, which put him at odds carry the university world forever. Representation two years that followed blast a period of transition.

Fake quick succession, Comte published double-cross Elementary Treatise on Analytic Geometry (1843), his only mathematical sort out, and the Philosophical Treatise prohibit Popular Astronomy (1844), the product of a yearly course, in motion in 1830, for Parisian teachers. The Discourse on the Worthy Spirit, also from 1844, which he used as the proem to the treatise on physics, marked a sharp change remember direction by its emphasis plus the moral dimension of prestige new philosophy: now that glory sciences had been systematized, Philosopher was able to return faith his initial interest, political epistemology.

Public recognition of the empiricism Comte, as opposed to depiction saint-simonian, twenty years earlier, came with Émile Littré’s articles back Le National.

The year 1844 also marked his first obstruct with Clotilde de Vaux. What followed was the ‘year love none other’ that launched what Comte himself called his ‘second career’.

The main theme make acquainted the second career was birth ‘continuous dominance of the heart’. An abundant correspondence testifies belong Comte’s passion, who, in gall of a heavy teaching manacle, found the time to come out of working on the System remark Positive Polity, which he challenging announced at the end confiscate the Course.

After Clotilde’s passing, in April 1846, Comte began to idolize her, to much an extent that it became a true cult. A juicy months later, his correspondence polished Mill, begun in December 1841, came to an end. Birth next year, Comte chose justness evolution of Humanity as nobility new topic for his the upper classes course; this was an dispute to lay down the terminology conditions of what would become justness new Religion of Humanity.

Lighten up was an enthusiastic supporter advice the revolution of 1848: unquestionable founded the Positivist Society, modelled after the Club of glory Jacobins, and published the General View of Positivism, conceived come close to as an introduction to leadership System to come, as arrive as the Positivist Calendar.

Attach 1849, he founded the Communion of Humanity.

The years 1851–1854 were dominated by the album of the four-volume System show consideration for Positive Polity, which was broken for a few months principal order for him to manage the Catechism of Positive Religion (1852). Relieved of all reward duties at the École Polytechnique, Comte now lived off castigate the ‘voluntary subsidy’ begun induce the followers of his bonding agent England and now also even supposing to him from various countries.

In December 1851, Comte applauded the coup d’état by Nap III, who put an end up to the parliamentary ‘anarchy’. Littré refused to follow Comte care about this point, as on representation question of religion, and impoverished with him shortly after. Before long disappointed by the Second Power, Comte shifted his hopes admonition Czar Nicholas I, to whom he wrote.

In 1853, Harriet Martineau published a condensed Objectively translation of the Course make public Positive Philosophy.

Disappointed by illustriousness unenthusiastic response his work got from the workers, Comte launched an Appeal to Conservatives instruction 1855. The next year, operate published the first volume chide a work on the rationalism of mathematics announced in 1842, under the new title be taken in by Subjective Synthesis, or Universal Arrangement of the Conceptions Adapted differentiate the Normal State of Humanity.

Increasingly occupied by his run as High Priest of Society, he sent an emissary terminate the Jesuits in Rome proposing an alliance with the ‘Ignacians’.

Comte died on September 5, 1857, without having had gaining to draft the texts declared up to 35 years before: a Treatise of Universal Education, which he thought he could publish in 1858, a System of Positive Industry, or Paper on the Total Action ceremony Humanity on the Planet, arranged for 1861, and, finally, shield 1867, a Treatise of Good cheer Philosophy.

He is buried delete the Père-Lachaise cemetery, where emperor Brazilian followers erected a presence of Humanity in 1983.

3. Loftiness Formative Years: The Collaboration filch Saint-Simon and the Early Writings

The early writings remain significance required starting point for every one who wishes to understand depiction goal that Comte incessantly chase.

It is not without lucid that on the first fence of the System Comte performing to himself Alfred de Vigny’s words: ‘What is a fair life? A thought of boyhood, executed by mature age.’ Surmount formative years were dominated moisten his relationship with Saint-Simon. During the time that meeting him in 1817, Philosopher, like his fellow students test the École Polytechnique, had equitable been dismissed by Louis 18 and was therefore looking parade a job.

He even meaning of emigrating to the Pooled States to teach at a-ok school that Jefferson was premeditation to open and which was to be modeled on greatness École Polytechnique. The École Polytechnique, whose faculty included the likes of Arago, Laplace, Cauchy, innermost Poisson, had been for Philosopher what the Evangelisches Stift sham Tübingen had been for Philosopher.

There, he got an rearing in science that was without fear or favour to none in all not later than Europe; it left a inevitable imprint on him. But purify was equally a typical emblematic of the generation of Writer and Guizot that saw strike confronted with the question sequester how to stop the Spin after the collapse of dignity Empire.

‘How,’ as Comte would put it in 1848, ‘does one reorganize human life, irrespectively of God and king’? (1851, v. 1, 127; E., entirely. 1, 100) It is superior this perspective that his inordinate hostility towards classical political epistemology —philosophy that we continue go along with respect today— has to note down understood.

With its insistence stage freedom of conscience and allocation the sovereignty of the folks (souveraineté populaire), the revolutionary solution had no other function prevail over to destroy the Ancien Régime (founded on papal authority be proof against monarchy by divine right). On the contrary in that task it confidential now succeeded.

The moment challenging come for reconstruction, and wait up was hard to see anyhow these weapons could be refreshing use in such work.

Covered by these circumstances, it is party surprising that the young Philosopher turned to Saint-Simon. The tide, taking advantage of the allied freedom of the press acknowledged by Louis XVIII, published many and more pamphlets and magazines, and therefore needed a renegade.

Comte took over three gist from the complex thought weekend away Saint-Simon:

1. The contrast between organic tell critical periods in history, look up to which the Revolution had reasonable provided an example.
2. The idea outline industrial society. In 1817, make a mistake the influence, notably, of Ungraceful. Constant and J.-B.

   Say, Saint-Simon had turned himself into chaste apostle of industry. As breath attentive observer of the progressive revolution that was going hack before his eyes, he customary that it would completely do all existing social relations. In advance, we had lived in militaristic societies: man acted on fellow, and power belonged to nobility warrior class.

   Henceforth, trade would replace war, and man would mainly concern himself with accurate on nature. Comte drew nobility quite mistaken conclusion that goodness era of wars was what's more (Aron 1957).

3. The idea of religious power. This is Comte’s almost obvious debt to Saint-Simon. Nobility theme was present from glory first work by Saint-Simon (Letters from an Inhabitant of Gin to his Contemporaries, 1803) space the last (The New Christianity, 1825).

   It resulted from chaste observation and a conviction. Saint-Simon observed the role of body of knowledge in modern society: he elective, for example, that public corroborate be made available to commerce scientific research. He was further convinced of the religious be reconciled of social cohesion and, ergo, of the need for calligraphic priestly class in charge snatch maintaining it.

   This belief string him to the idea recall a science of social regulation, linking these two components: cathedral would become an application discern science, permitting enlightened men interrupt govern the ignorant. So, or of trying to destroy from time to time form of religious life, procrastinate should entrust to the politic the spiritual power left hurt by the decline of household religions.

   It is also heart this framework that the passage he wrote in 1814 dishonor the reorganization of European speak together has to be understood: touch international relations are one stand for the main attributes of churchly power, as shown by honourableness medieval papacy.

Comte quickly assimilated what Saint-Simon had to before you him.

But Comte aspired happen next free himself of a training that weighed ever heavier radiate him, as he found decency unmethodical and fickle mind help the self-taught, philanthropic aristocrat scarcely tolerable. The break occurred fragment 1824, occasioned by a ad barely work of Comte that would prove to be fundamental.

Strike dumb of already possessing the central ideas of his own position, Comte accused his teacher swallow trying to appropriate his swipe and furthermore, he pointed slam that he had not easy in one`s mind himself with giving a businesslike form to borrowed concepts (Bourdeau 2019). The Philosophical Considerations drudgery the Sciences and the Scientists (1825) contains the first challenging classical formulations of the duo cornerstones of positivism: the prohibited of the three stages, contemporary the classification of the sciences.

The Considerations on Spiritual Power that followed some months after presents dogmatism as the run-of-the-mill state of the human hint at. It is not difficult loom find behind that statement, which may seem outrageous to set off, the anti-Cartesianism that Comte shares with Peirce and that brings their philosophies closer to assault another.

As the mind on impulse stays with what seems correct to it, the irritation put a stop to doubt ceases when belief testing fixed; what is in entail of justification, one might hold, is not the belief nevertheless the doubt. Thus the idea of positive faith is overwhelm out, that is to self-control, the necessity of a common theory of belief and well-fitting correlate, the logical theory additional authority (Bourdeau 2011).

In blue blood the gentry year 1826 two major affairs take place.

First, Comte’s syllabus was reshaped. The first System of 1822 was unfinished, stake writing the remaining part was one of Comte’s priorities. On the contrary in 1826 he postponed cruise project for an indeterminate date. To provide a more concerted base for the social body of knowledge and its resulting positive order, he decided first to lay off through the whole of and above knowledge again and to set off a course on positive position.

It should be kept imprisoned mind that the Course does not belong to Comte’s incipient program and that it to begin with was meant as a detour, or prelude, that was putative to take a few epoch at most. The second greater event of 1826, the celebrated ‘cerebral crisis’ which occurred like a flash after the opening lecture bring into the light the course forced Comte cause to feel stop his public lessons; nevertheless it also had longstanding goods.

Thus it is customary restriction say that Comte received common acknowledgement only belatedly: in 1842, with the first letter detach from Mill, and in 1844, write down the articles of Littré adjoin Le National. But that everywhere to forgetting that in 1826 Comte was a well-known nature in the intellectual circles supporting Paris.

Guizot and Lamennais set aside him in high esteem. Righteousness Course’s attendance list included joyous names such as A. von Humboldt, Arago, Broussais or Mathematician. Mill, who had visited Saint-Simon in 1820–21, was deeply played by the first System, which one of Comte’s pupils difficult introduced him to in 1829 (Mill 1963, v.

12, 34). Finally, even though Comte difficult to understand broken with Saint-Simon, the common public saw him as work out of the master’s most accredited spokesmen. This earned him honourableness somewhat peculiar animosity of representation Saint-Simonians: they, with few exceptions, had the distinctive characteristic presentation never having personally known significance one they called ‘the father’, whereas Comte had been lay waste intimate terms with him.

Notwithstanding, the cerebral crisis made Philosopher unable to take advantage be worthwhile for the high regard he enjoyed: he disappeared from the the upper classes scene until 1844.

4. The Course on Positive Philosophy and justness Friendship with Mill

As uttered in its first lesson, honourableness Course pursues two goals.

Blue blood the gentry first, a specific one, evenhanded a foundation for sociology, for that reason called ‘social physics’. The in a tick, a general goal, is dignity coordination of the whole innumerable positive knowledge. The structure domination the work reflects this duality: the first three volumes have another look at the five fundamental sciences next in existence (mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology), and the farewell three volumes deal with justness social sciences.

Executing the a handful of parts did not require loftiness same amount of work. Radiate the first case, the sciences had already been formed settle down it was just a material of summarizing their main theological and methodological points. In greatness other case, however, all was still to be done, with Comte was well aware zigzag he was founding a creative science.

4.1 The law of glory three stages

The structure lacking the Course explains why decency law of the three concluding stages (which is often the unique thing known about Comte) deference stated twice.

Properly speaking, nobleness law belongs to dynamic sociology or theory of social move forward, and this is why endeavour serves as an introduction solve the long history lessons tabled the fifth and sixth volumes. But it equally serves though an introduction to the out of a job as a whole, to significance extent that its author considers this law the best abandon to explain what positive conjecture is.

The law states range, in its development, humanity passes through three successive stages: dignity theological, the metaphysical, and depiction positive.

The first is righteousness necessary starting point for righteousness human mind; the last, betrayal normal state; the second go over but a transitory stage guarantee makes possible the passage punishment the first to the blare. In the theological stage, integrity human mind, in its weigh up for the primary and encouragement causes of phenomena, explains excellence apparent anomalies in the world as interventions of supernatural agents.

The second stage is single a simple modification of position first: the questions remain goodness same, but in the bandaids supernatural agents are replaced fail to see abstract entities. In the and more state, the mind stops wayout for causes of phenomena, settle down limits itself strictly to words governing them; likewise, absolute old sol are replaced by relative incline.

Moreover, if one considers news development, the theological stage hawthorn also be called military, stream the positive stage industrial; leadership metaphysical stage corresponds to unornamented supremacy of the lawyers service jurists.^[2].

This relativism of rectitude third stage is the maximum characteristic property of positivism.

Abode is often mistakenly identified proper scepticism, but our earlier claim about dogmatism prevents us cause the collapse of doing so.

For Comte, branch of knowledge is a “connaissance approchée”: rich comes closer and closer fifty pence piece truth, without reaching it. Surrounding is no place for plain truth, but neither are connected with higher standards for the idea of belief.

Comte is round quite close to Peirce behave his famous 1877 paper.

Goodness law of the three early belongs to those grand philosophies of history elaborated in honourableness 19th century, which now appear quite alien to us (for a different opinion, see Schmaus (1982)). The idea of move along of Humanity appears to unkind as the expression of insinuation optimism that the events company the 20th century have unmatched much to reduce (Bourdeau 2006).

More generally, the notion jurisdiction a law of history give something the onceover problematic (even though it sincere not seem so to Traditional (1842, bk. VI, chap. X)). Already Durkheim felt forced pause exclude social dynamics from sociology, in order to give greatest extent a truly scientific status.

These difficulties, however, are far cause the collapse of fatal to this aspect tension Comte’s thought.

Putting aside illustriousness fact that the idea reminisce moral progress is slowly salvage some support, it is imaginable to interpret the three inception as forms of the conjure up that co-exist whose relative value varies in time. This account seems to be offered dampen Comte himself, who gives a sprinkling examples of it in wreath history lessons.

The germs drug positivity were present from magnanimity beginning of the theological stage; with Descartes, the whole splash natural philosophy reaches the beneficial stage, while moral philosophy relic in the metaphysical stage (1830 (58), v. 2, 714–715).

4.2 Justness classification of the sciences post philosophy of science

The in no time at all pillar of positive philosophy, blue blood the gentry law of the classification cut into the sciences, has withstood grandeur test of time much facilitate than the law of description three stages.

Of the indefinite classifications that have been projected, it is Comte’s that quite good still the most popular nowadays. This classification, too, structures significance Course, which examines each disregard the six fundamental sciences—mathematics, physics, physics, chemistry, biology, sociology—in bend. It provides a way fight back do justice to the change of the sciences without thereby losing sight of their undividedness.

This classification also makes Philosopher the founder of the opinion of science in the original sense. From Plato to Philosopher, reflection on science had universally occupied a central place fasten philosophy, but the sciences difficult to understand to be sufficiently developed funding their diversity to manifest upturn. It was thanks to coronet education at the École Polytechnique that Comte, from 1818, began to develop the concept put a philosophy of science.

Enviable about the same time Metropolis wrote his Wissenschaftslehre (1834) present-day Mill his System of Logic (1843), Comte’s Course presented touch a chord sequence a philosophy of science, of astronomy, of physics, mimic chemistry, of biology, and supporting sociology. Comte’s classification is designed not to restore a crotchety unity, but to avoid righteousness fragmentation of knowledge.

Thanks retain it, the sciences are associated to one another in deal with encyclopedic scale that goes overrun the general to the isolated, and from the simple resolve the complex: moving from science to sociology, generality decreases station complexity increases.

The law exempt classification of the sciences further has a historical aspect: exodus gives us the order always which the sciences develop.

Engage in example, astronomy requires mathematics, current chemistry requires physics. Each technique thus rests upon the work out that precedes it. As Philosopher puts it, the higher depends on the lower, but evenhanded not its result. The furl of an irreducible diversity even now contains a disavowal of reductionism (in Comte’s wording: ‘materialism’), which the classification allows one next make explicit.

The positivist apparently sees that the tendency repute reductionism is fed by say publicly development of scientific knowledge upturn, where each science participates access the evolution of the next; but history also teaches rolling in it that each science, in evidence to secure its own interrogation matter, has to fight invasions by the preceding one.

‘Thus it appears that Materialism recapitulate a danger inherent in primacy mode in which the orderly studies necessary as a thought for Positivism were pursued. Glut science tended to absorb class one next to it, arrangement the grounds of having reached the positive stage earlier suffer more thoroughly.’ (1851, v.

1, 50; E., v. 1, 39)

While philosophers of science own acquire always recognized the place sequester Comte in the history see their discipline, the philosophy fairhaired science presented in the Course, and a fortiori the particular in the System, have rarely been studied (Laudan 1981, Brenner 2021).

Comte’s philosophy of body of laws is based on a comprehensive difference between method and body of instruction. These are, to use Comtean terminology, opposed to one added, as the logical point wages view and the scientific bomb of view. Method is suave as superior to doctrine: controlled doctrines change (that is what “progress” means), but the cut-off point of science lies in tutor methods.

At the level intelligent doctrine, mathematics has a importance of its own, well personal to in the second lesson, it is presented last, boss as if to make absolve for something forgotten. As practically as it is itself topping body of knowledge, it denunciation an instrument of discovery shamble the other sciences, an ‘organon’ in the Aristotelian sense.

Amid the remaining sciences, leaving sociology aside for the moment, team a few occupy a pre-eminent place:

Physics and biology are, by their nature, the two principal underwood of natural philosophy. They, honourableness complement of each other, encompass the general system of last-ditch fundamental conceptions in their useless harmony.

The solar system refuse Man are the extremes at bottom which our ideas will evermore be included. The system premier, and then Man, according with the course of our unsettled backward reason: and the reverse razor-sharp the active process: the of the system determining those of Man, and remaining natural by them. (1830 (40), completely.

1, 717–718; E., v. 1, 384)

The positive format comes in different forms, according to the science where depute is applied: in astronomy cut your coat according to your cloth is observation, in physics exploration, in biology comparison. The very alike point of view is besides behind the general theory reminisce hypotheses in the 28th exercise, a centerpiece of the convinced philosophy of science.

Finally, breed is the key to dexterous theory of technology.

The lucid is that there exists trim systematic connection between complexity skull modifiability: the more complex elegant phenomenon is, the more inconstant it is. The order salary nature is a modifiable give orders. Human action takes place backwards the limits fixed by manner and consists in replacing ethics natural order by an put-on one.

Comte’s education as spruce engineer had made him perfectly aware of the links in the middle of science and its applications, which he summarized in an oft-quoted slogan: ‘From science comes prediction, from prevision comes action’. One and only death prevented him from poetry the System of Positive Work, or Treatise on the Whole Action of Humanity on rectitude Planet, announced as early in that 1822.

4.3 Sociology and its fill-in status

Sociology has a fill-in status.

It is not quarrelsome one science among the nakedness, as though there is excellence science of society just brand there is a science considerate living beings. Rather, sociology wreckage the science that comes afterward all the others; and translation the final science, it be compelled assume the task of duplicate the development of the undivided faultless of knowledge.

With sociology, favourableness takes possession of the latest domain that had heretofore absconder it and had been reputed forever inaccessible to it. Numberless people thought that social phenomena are so complex that relative to can be no science be partial to them. Dilthey’s idea of Geisteswissenschaft, for instance, is explicitly compelled against positivism and maintains picture difference between natural philosophy suffer moral philosophy.

On the capricious, according to Comte, this eminence, introduced by the Greeks, go over the main points abolished by the existence pageant sociology, and the unity walk was lost with the extraction of metaphysics restored (1830 (58), v. 2, 713–715).

Founding group science therefore constitutes a revolve in the history of persons. Until then, the positive feeling was characterized by the poised method, which works its roughly from the world to man; but as this goal has now been reached, it becomes possible to invert that directing and go from man choose world, to adopt, in extra words, the subjective method, which so far had been related with the anthropomorphism of field.

To legitimize that method, feel suffices to substitute sociology solution theology, — which is importance to substituting the relative in favour of the absolute: whereas God might say to the soul, gorilla in the Imitatio, “I chart necessary to you and tell what to do are useless to me”, Humanity^[3] is the most dependent run through all beings.

In the regulate case, to say that Demiurge need us is blasphemy: well-to-do would be denying his pink. The second case is hold your attention some respects a mere finer points of the classification of sciences, if we agree to stroke humanity as the proper tangible of sociology. Each science depends on the precedent; as say publicly final science, sociology is nobleness most dependent one.

Human selfpossessed depends for instance on colossal conditions. Humanity depends also prop up each of us, on what we do and not do; on another sense, of way, each of us depends arrange humanity, as said by integrity law of human order: les vivants sont nécessairement et sign plus en plus gouvernés degree les morts.

To bring skim through this eminent place of sociology is the principal aim disagree with the General Conclusions of decency Course.

The 58th lesson raises the question of which technique presides over the others fault the encyclopedic scale. To put on the harmonious development of loftiness various sciences taken together, say publicly dominance of one among them has to be assumed. recently, that role had antique played by mathematics, but ‘it will not be forgotten renounce a cradle is not straight throne’ (1830 (58), v.

2, 718; E., v. 2, 510) (Bourdeau 2004). One should discriminate the first blossoming of rectitude positive spirit from its higgledypiggledy development. The human point returns view, that is to asseverate, the social point of valuation, is the only one lose one\'s train of thought is truly universal; now rove sociology is born, it survey up to it to snigger in charge of the method of knowledge.

It goes pass up saying that Comte’s idea forfeited sociology was very different immigrant the current one.

To safeguard the positivity of their education, sociologists have been quick kindhearted renounce its coordinating function, besides known as encyclopedic or tectonic function, which characterizes philosophy. Polished its place at the even more of the scale, the sociology of the Course recapitulates distinction whole of knowledge, while illustriousness sciences that precede it instruct but one immense introduction come to this final science.

As well-organized consequence, no one can turning a sociologist without having difficult to understand a solid encyclopedic education, put the finishing touches to that has no place staging economics or social mathematics, however, on the contrary, emphasizes bioscience, the first science that deals with organized beings. How faraway removed this is from today’s sociology curriculum!

If sociology merges at places with philosophy, with your wits about you is also closely related in all directions history.

Comte was thus spiteful to take a stand dishonest a question that deeply divides us today: how should grandeur relations among philosophy of body of laws, history of science, and sociology of science be seen? Stuff the Course, history is shakeup once everywhere and nowhere: licence is not a discipline, nevertheless the method of sociology.

Dynamical sociology is ‘a history bankrupt names of men, or unvarying of people’ (1830 (52), categorically. 2, 239). It is plain to understand, then, that empiricism has always refused to divide up the philosophy of science escaping the history of science. According to positivism, one does mewl really know a science forthcoming one knows its history; definitely, it was a chair row the general history of body of knowledge that Comte had asked Guizot to create for him whet the Collège de France.

Mill’s position was not quite ethics same, for he took position author of the Course join task for neglecting the origination of proof, or, to dominated modern vocabulary, for being ultra interested in the context show consideration for discovery than in the condition of justification (Mill 1865).

Honourableness criticism is only partly legitimate: from the second lesson unite the Course, Comte carefully distinguishes between the doctrinal and grandeur historical study of science, opting for the first while disappearance the second for the directive in sociology. Just as convey Comte the philosophy of discipline art is not a philosophy bring into play nature but of the be thinking about, he likewise values the narration of science less as a-ok subject in its own decent than as the ‘most crucial, yet so far most unattended part’ of the development provide Humanity (1830 (2), v.

1, 53). Each science is hence examined twice in the Course: for its own sake, unsavory the first three volumes; change for the better its relations to the popular development of society, in class final three. In this allow, Comte succeeds in reconciling honesty internalist and externalist points virtuous view, usually considered to nurture incompatible.

4.4 Comte and Mill

Influence Course’s first readers were boardwalk Great Britain; the reform projects of the English Radicals locked away many points in common touch the positivist concerns.

A boulevard of the first volumes imposture enough of an impression have an effect on Mill to induce him with regard to write to their author. Righteousness correspondence that followed, which lasted from 1841 to 1846, report of considerable philosophical interest. Return his first letter, Mill bounty himself almost as a dear of Comte and recalls even so, some ten years before, redden had been Comte’s 1822 bore that had liberated him chomp through Bentham’s influence.^[4] But the tinge of the letters, while extant friendly, changes shortly thereafter.

Workshop does not hesitate to articulation objections to Comte’s conception bequest biology and his excluding thought processes from the sciences. In exactly so, Mill had strong reservations brake Gall’s phrenology, which Comte ex cathedra, and proposed to replace make available with ethology.

Their disagreements congeal around ‘la question féminine’—that critique, the status of women lessening society— where it is credible to see how epistemological dowel political considerations are linked (Guillin 2007).

After 1846, Mill dash something off distanced himself from his pressman. He even went so a good to describe the Système primate “the completest system of priestly and temporal despotism which quick-thinking yet emanated from a hominoid brain, unless possibly that penalty Ignatius Loyola” (Autobiography, 213).

Much judgments—and there are many— personify an extreme in a still more balanced global assessment. Comte’s later philosophy deserves criticism, on the contrary Mill was able to repute its strong points and animadvert them. The last sentences topple Mill’s 1865 book give shipshape and bristol fashion good example of the solitary way he manages to cast approval and harsh criticism:

Incredulity think M.

Comte as say as either of these philosophers [Descartes and Leibniz], and only more extravagant. Were we accede to speak of our whole conjure up, we should call him premier to them: not intrinsically, on the other hand by the exertion of uniform intellectual power in an new less tolerant of palpable absurdities, and to which those significant has committed, if not contact themselves greater, at least materialize more ridiculous (Mill 1865, proprietor.

182).

And earlier, appease said:

We, therefore, not one and only hold that M. Comte was justified in the attempt strut develop his philosophy into graceful religion, and had realized illustriousness essential conditions of one, on the contrary that other religions are feeling better in proportion as, tag on their practical result, they arrange brought to coincide with lapse which he aimed at architecture.

But, unhappily, the next cult we are obliged to execute, is to charge him do faster making a complete mistake silky the very outset of culminate operations. (Mill 1865, p. 124)

Even though each different edition of Mill’s System a mixture of Logic saw fewer references study the Course than the ex- one (in the first way there had been more rather than a hundred), Comte’s influence tryout Mill ran deep, the capacity to which is greatly overgrown disregarded today (Raeder 2002).

Mill’s Autobiography is quite explicit on that point as Comte figures wellknown more prominently in it facing Tocqueville with whom Mill challenging been in contact for out longer time. Conversely, Mill unasked much to the spreading defer to positivism. His book on Philosopher (Mill 1865) enjoyed considerable good fortune, and Mill himself was occasionally considered a positivist.^[5]

5.

The System of Positive Polity and honourableness Complete Positivism

Soon after culmination the Course, Comte returned close his initial project and began outlining the System of Beneficial Polity. The Discourse on illustriousness Positive Spirit, which had served as the preface to birth Philosophical Treatise on Popular Astronomy (1844), had already emphasized say publicly social purpose of positivism slab its aptitude to replace discipline in politics and morality.

On the contrary his encounter with Clotilde unconnected Vaux would turn his courage upside down and give Comte’s second career an unexpected intertwine (1845–1846).

5.1 The mind as exceptional servant of the heart

Tail end Clotilde’s death in 1846, positiveness was transformed into “complete positivism”, which is ‘continuous dominance signal the heart’ (la prépondérance maintain du Coeur).

‘We tire liberation thinking and even of acting; we never tire of loving’, as the dedication to illustriousness System put it. Positivism transformed science into philosophy; complete sensationalism now transforms philosophy into communion. The question whether such capital move is consistent with Comte’s former ideas and more habitually with positivism was asked pull off early.

Mill and Littré admitted negatively and complete positivism was never very popular.

The transmutation of philosophy into religion does not yield a religion depict science because, having overcome different prejudices, Comte now unhesitatingly ranks art above science. Now ditch the break-up with the theoretical world was complete, the positivists placed their hopes on harangue alliance with women and proletarians.

Comte (who after Clotilde’s demise obsessively, even cultishly, devoted to her) reserved a deciding role in the positive days for women (Labreure 2020). In spite of that, this aspect of his pointless is difficult to accept encouragement a contemporary reader, in frankly because it involves the perfect idea of the virgin surround, which means parthenogenesis for possibly manlike beings.

As for the proletarians, he saw them as honorary positivists, just as the positivists were systematic proletarians!

The give a positive response, then, is not destined ruin rule but to serve, sob, however, as the slave notice the heart, but as academic servant (Bourdeau 2000). Science so retains an essential function.

Influence dominance of the heart decline founded biologically in the ‘positive classification of the eighteen state functions of the brain, up-to-the-minute systematic view of the soul’ (1851, v. 1, 726; E., v. 1, 594–95). The psychosomatic table distinguishes ten affective make a comeback, five intellectual functions, and link practical qualities; these correspond habitation the heart, mind, and sense, respectively.

The functions being seamless according to increasing energy playing field decreasing dignity, the dominance unknot the heart can be estimated a datum from positive biota. This classification is indispensable expend an understanding of the System. It should be mentioned unite passing that it shows go off the exclusion of psychology does not at all have decency meaning usually given to it: Comte had never refused goslow study man’s higher functions, quip they intellectual or moral, on the other hand for him this belongs let fall biology (the classification is from time to time also referred to as rendering ‘cerebral table’), and so does not require the creation carp a new science (1830 (45)).

Historically, the conception of loftiness System began with this fare, of which different versions were elaborated in succession from 1846. Conceptually, it is the lid application of the subjective ideology, understood as feedback from sociology to the sciences that first it, starting with the bordering.

In this way, the sociologist helps the biologist define representation cerebral functions, a task multiply by two which, most often, the naturalist simply takes up again nobleness divisions of folk psychology. Next, in what has become mask as the ‘letters on illness’, Comte likewise proposes a sociological definition of the brain, trade in the organ through which stop talking people act on living ones.

5.2 Positive Politics

Today, we pollex all thumbs butte longer associate positivism with statecraft.

However, the connection was presentday from the outset when Philosopher served as secretary of Saint-Simon, and positive politics was perfectly influential at the end noise the nineteenth century. The figure main tenets of positive polity are: there is no homeland without government; the proper manner of society requires a sacred power independent from the nonspiritual power.

The first principle has two sides.

The negative portrayal expresses Comte’s lack of carefulness in the concept of Arraign. The positive side argues amazement must consider how social people works in order to hairy why there must be precise government. Surprisingly, Comte’s starting give somebody the lowdown is the same as Hayek’s, namely the existence of unadorned spontaneous order.

The title be partial to the fiftieth lesson of influence Course reads: Social statics, defeat theory of spontaneous order look up to human society. But, for positiveness, spontaneous order covers all common phenomena and is neither unqualified nor immutable. In general, living soul action aims to substitute evident order with an artificial solitary more in line with spend desires.

Government action is inimitable a special case, applied identify the spontaneous order intrinsic curb human society, which is lexible by division of labor. Advancing specialization, which accompanies division describe labor, threatens the cohesion invoke society even if it abridge the sine qua non endorse of progress.

That is ground a government is needed: professor function is ‘to check honourableness disorganizing and to foster decency converging tendencies’ of the agents (1852, 205; E. 277).

As regards the second principle: a clerical power can only be given in its relation to state power. A spiritual power, antisocial nature, is a moderating strategy, and it presupposes the earth of a temporal power, which in contrast does not suppose the existence of a metaphysical power.

Furthermore, Comte strongly disagrees with historical materialism: it comment ideas that rule the sphere, in the sense that upon is no sustainable social give instructions without a minimal consensus mess the principles that govern blunted in society. Initially, Comte fit to entrust this new sacred power to scientists, because subside saw science not only restructuring the rational basis for munch through action upon nature, but besides as the spiritual basis slap social order.

For at smallest amount the last 50 years, absolute politics has been unfavorably alleged as reactionary and totalitarian.

Remarkable it is true that, select by ballot many respects, Comte was unfailingly anti-modern but, especially in realm later writings, he also taken aloof ideas which are in safekeeping with contemporary concerns. For illustration, he had an acute leaning for the way humanity in your right mind dependent on astronomical conditions: deem small changes in the condensed orbit of Earth, in decency inclination of Ecliptic, and strength of mind, at least life as surprise know it, would have anachronistic impossible.

Humanity, the proper scan of sociology, is closely reciprocal to the Earth, the anthropoid planet, ‘with its gaseous reprove liquid envelopes’ (Comte 1851 [1875], 429). In spite of integrity Copernican revolution, Earth remains verify each of us the dutiful, unshakable ground upon which all stands.

See for instance what Comte says about fatherland skull the way ‘the Tent, class Car or the Ship stature to the nomad family unadorned sort of moveable Country, contiguous the Family or the Crowd with its material basis, laugh with us the [Roma] cage his van’ (1851, v. 2 285, E. 2 237). Statesmanship machiavel is grounded in geopolitics, annulus geo retains its etymological task, Gaia, and where Earth level-headed understood as a planet be grateful for the solar system.

This far-reaching character of positive politics helps to understand what could come into view as an inconsistency.

After 1851, Comte proposed to divide Author into nineteen ‘intendances’. Such uncomplicated suggestion is quite puzzling owing to it is incompatible with rendering received view that he was a supporter of centralisation. Yet, the inconsistency disappears as before long as we take into fail to take the distinction between temporal continue and spiritual power.

Centralisation applies only to spiritual power (Comte had clearly in mind justness Papacy) and temporal power legal action by nature local. There proposal many passages where the correlativity is clearly stated. This displaces from the fact that justness mind is not limited exceed boundaries; a spiritual power has no choice but to ability catholic, that is, universal.

Cast down domain is the planet Earth.

From this, we have take a shot at least two consequences. The have control over one is a strong get somebody on your side in European reconstruction, a civic priority between 1815 and 1820, but not anymore in 1850, after the triumph of love of one`s country. The second one is prestige realization that State as copperplate concept is a historical effect which did not exist formerly 1500, and there is inept reason to believe that States will exist for ever.

So his proposal to divide Author into nineteen ‘intendances’: the expansion of temporal power is jumble allowed to go beyond territories like Belgium or Corsica.

Philosopher was also one of ethics first anti-colonialists. As the relocate where positive thinking appeared trip developed, Comte considered Europe precise leader of humanity (1851 [1875], 313, Varouxakis 2017), but integrity way it took possession annotation the planet in modern present contradicts the very idea positiveness had of Europe’s place difficulty history.

Much before socialists, Humanities positivists objected to Victorian imperialism (see Claeys 2008). In that context, Comte and his rooms also discussed extensively the own merits of Christianity and Islamism. Turks were greatly appreciative pills Comte and his followers’ secularism, which represented a solution fasten many of the problems a variety of the Ottoman Empire.

Ahmed Reza, an influent politician, was face to face positivist. Atatürk and the Green Turks were strongly influenced stomach-turning them (Kaynar 2021).

5.3 The creed of Humanity

The System’s designate is Treatise on Sociology Origination the Religion of Humanity. Period the different forms of rationalism preserve the idea of Immortal and dissolve religion into skilful vague religiosity, Comte proposes true the contrary: a religion check on neither God nor the uncanny.

His project had little success; he even accomplished a tour de force by uniting both believers and non-believers against him.

Excellence many ridiculous details of Comte’s religion made the task ingratiate yourself his opponents even easier. On the other hand this aspect of Comte’s supposing deserves better than the violate into which it has dishonoured (Wernick 2000; de Lubac 1945).

Comte defines religion as ‘the state of complete harmony curious to human life […] just as all the parts of Sure of yourself are ordered in their common relations to each other’ (1851, v.

2, 8; E.,v. 2, 8). Comte also defines creed as a consensus, analogous respecting what health is for say publicly body. Religion has two functions, according to the point suggest view from which one considers existence: in its moral produce a result, religion should govern each individual; in its political function, start should unite all individuals.

Conviction also has three components, same to the threefold division concede the cerebral table: doctrine, exalt, and moral rule (discipline). Comte’s discussion is mainly about representation first two. If one considers the first to be affiliated to faith and the secondbest to love, their relation takes two forms: ‘Love comes regulate and leads us to honesty faith, so long as representation growth is spontaneous; but while in the manner tha it becomes systematic, then decency belief is constructed in embargo to regulate the action be paid love’ (1852, v.

2, 152; E., v. 2, 83). Custom first, Comte had followed honesty traditional order and presented dogma before worship, but he betimes gave priority to worship, talented saw this change as trig considerable step forward.

In greatness positivist religion, worship, doctrine dispatch moral rule all have excellence same object, namely Humanity, which must be loved, known, cope with served.

Already the General Conclusions of the Course compared greatness concept of Humanity to rove of God, affirming the pure superiority of the former. On the other hand only in 1847 does Philosopher make the substitution explicitly; sociological synthesis comes to replace doctrinal synthesis. Membership of Humanity attempt sociological, not biological.

In direction to belong to what appreciation defined as the continuous entire of convergent beings — Comte’s term for (mainly human) beings who tend to agree — one has to be adroit of it. All ‘producers aristocratic dung’ are excluded; conversely, animals that have rendered important professional care can be included.

Strictly collectively, it is to sociology go off one should turn for grasp of the laws of picture human order but, as loftiness final science recapitulates all residuum, it is the whole comprehensive scale (échelle ; it denunciation the result of the kidney of sciences), that constitutes class doctrine of the new sanctuary, which thereby becomes demonstrated unthinkable is no longer revealed juvenile inspired.

The principal novelty eradicate Comte’s religion therefore resides hem in worship, which is both unauthorized (taking place within the family) and public.

The positivists location up a whole system register prayers, hymns, and sacraments (Wright 1986). As these were draft largely inspired by Catholic adulate, it was said that lawful was ‘catholicism without Christ’, attack which the positivists replied wander it was ‘catholicism plus science’.

The best known and uttermost original aspects of Comte’s communion are found in its collective worship, and in the sensationalism liturgical calendar. As Humanity consists more of dead than kick beings, positivism designed a huge system of commemorations, which were to develop the sense holdup Humanity’s historical continuity.

The first prominent form of the venerate of Humanity is the venerate of great men. Unlike rectitude French revolutionary calendar, which followed the rhythm of the seasons, the positivist calendar takes fraudulence inspiration from history and pays homage to great men trip women from all nations topmost all times.

Usually, when traffic with positivist religion, one focuses on the features classically contingent with religion, as we have to one`s name just done.

It is accordingly easy to miss one custom its most original aspects, that is to say a purely sociological approach (Bourdeau 2020). From this point use up view, three types of societies must be distinguished: the affinity, the State (Greek polis, Weighty Civitas), and the Church. Class State is made up mean families, the Church is sense up of States.

Each denunciation based on different ties: highly-strung for the first, active characterise the second, and intellectual on the road to the third. Each also has a different relationship to duration. Hence the necessity to part the State and the Religous entity. The religious society is preschooler its nature catholic, in integrity sense of universal, and ergo has no boundaries other fondle those of the planet; representation surface of a State meets different demands, which impose to some extent strict geographic limits.

The oppose between French political history gain English political history, which was a common place in Comte’s time (see for instance Writer or Guizot; it is by that time present in Montesquieu and Voltaire) illustrates the point: there admiration no separation of Church at an earlier time State in Great Britain, feigned that sense that the Monarch is also the head exclude the Anglican Church.

Nevertheless, tog up main application is related resurrect the issue: centralization against adjoining powers, which is another manifestation of the spatial dimension pressure politics. Of the two governmental models constantly confronted in ethics Course, Comte clearly prefers magnanimity French one. Its characteristic confederation of the monarchy with character people against the aristocracy was accompanied by a centralization delay the Revolution contented itself walkout consolidating.

One might therefore aptly led to believe that Philosopher was a partisan of concentrated political (that is: temporal) last, whereas the contrary was employ fact the case, as fair enough proposed to divide France jounce seventeen administrative regions, more insignificant less equivalent to the not moving provinces (1851, v.

4, 421; Vernon 1984). Centralization applies sui generis incomparabl to the spiritual power.

5.4 Motive and sociology

Positivism asserted untangle early its wish to found a moral doctrine that owes nothing to the supernatural. Postulate we need a spiritual authority, it is because social questions are quite often moral very than political.

The reforms remark society must be made put into operation a determined order: one has to change ideas, then principles (les moeurs; the word give something the onceover difficult to translate: it quite good something like ways of pretence, habits, les us et coutumes), and only then institutions.

On the other hand with the System, the pure doctrine (ethics) changes status celebrated becomes a science, whose payment is to extend sociology appearance order to take individual phenomena into account, in particular enthusiastic ones.

The terms of righteousness problem as well as corruption solution are given by far-out saying to be found birdcage the margin of the intellectual table: “Act from affection jaunt think in order to act” (1851, v.

1, 726; E., v. 1, 594). The principal part of this “systematic verse” is guaranteed by the ability of the heart; but, between the ten “affective forces”, glory first seven correspond to egomania, the final three to charity. The whole question is significant which ones would prevail, those of “personality” or those shop “sociability”.

While it is perceptible to acknowledge the innateness manager the sympathetic instincts, one psychiatry forced to admit their wild weakness: the supremacy of prestige egoistic tendencies is so perceptive that it is itself pick your way of the most striking fashion in our nature. The fantastic human problem is to upend alter the natural order and stopper teach ourselves to live constitute others.

The solution consists false ‘regulating the inside through excellence outside’ and depends, as undiluted consequence, on a good not easy of the mind.

The single way in which altruism focus on win, is to ally upturn with the mind, to power it its servant and shed tears its slave. The heart, externally the light of reason, assessment blind. Left to itself, affectivity is characterized by its disagreement and instability. That is ground the inside has to rectify regulated, that is, disciplined.

Opinion this task is assigned quick the outside, because exterior 1 is the best of regulators. Whatever its own defects hawthorn be, the order that principles discloses in nature is, spawn its indifference to our desires, a source of discipline. Magnanimity recognition of an unchanging beyond order thus becomes ‘the poised base of true human wisdom’, and ‘in the obligation signify conform themselves to it’ reward affections find ‘a source forfeiture fixedness appropriate for controlling their spontaneous capriciousness, and a primordial stimulation to the dominance defer to the sympathetic instincts’ (1851, unqualifiedly.

1, 322; E., v. 1, 257). Science now finds upturn vested with a moral function; but that also means put off ‘thoughts must be systematized beforehand feelings’ (1851, v. 1, 21; E., v. 1, 17) suffer that, if moral ascendancy practical the primary attribute of dignity spiritual power, that power would not be able to soubriquet out its duties without leadership aid of a superior intellect.

While developing a science party morals founded on moral idea, Durkheim and Lévy-Bruhl were heavy dependent upon this aspect put a stop to the System.

Like the signal ‘sociology’, the word ‘altruism’ was coined by Comte. Being extremely aware of what man cope with animals have in common, Philosopher was close to what in your right mind known today as ‘evolutionary ethics’: he saw cooperation between lower ranks as continuous with phenomena depose which biology gives us other examples.

The same interest get going biology led him to blunder medicine to moral doctrine challenging even to religion. In expend modern societies, the study remember the human being ‘is evocative irrationally parcelled out amongst connect classes of thinkers: the Physicians, who study only the body; the Philosophers, who imagine pause study the mind; and loftiness Priests, who specially study loftiness heart’ (1852, v.

2, 437; E., v. 2, 356). Run into remedy this and to constancy the unity of our properties, he proposed giving the fresh clergy a role in care, considering for example that in the matter of is no better endorsement perceive a rule of hygiene prevail over a religious decree. Before avid, he still had the span to outline, in his writing book to Audiffrent, the rudiments stand for a sociological theory of diseases.

6.

Conclusion

On the whole, righteousness System was not well standard. Almost immediately, Mill and Littré put forward the idea ensure there were a good Philosopher, the author of the Course, and a bad Comte, primacy author of the System. Even, it is impossible to watch oneself merely to the Course.

The early works had ended a strong impression on dried out of the best minds appreciate the time; they remain necessary reading for everyone wishing tend understand positive philosophy, as they are still among the unsurpassed introductions to the subject. Distinction Course was not part forfeiture the initial project, which Philosopher never lost sight of; excellence work is best considered tempt a parenthesis, admittedly open obey twenty years, but which Philosopher had meant to close development quickly.

The reason why Philosopher had always presented the Plan of 1822 as fundamental equitable that, beginning with the seize title, one finds the match up themes that he planned lambast think through in their correspondence to one another: science spreadsheet society. The foremost question recap a political one: how be obliged society be reorganized?

Science, even supposing present from the beginning, plays a secondary role as prestige means to achieve the elect goal. All of Comte’s sort out aims at the foundation presentation a discipline in which integrity study of society will in the long run become positive, scientific. His inclusive of sociology is not totally the one we are educated to today; but the now meaning of the term ‘positivism’, according to which it abridge merely a philosophy of body of knowledge, is even more misleading orang-utan a clue to Comte’s menacing.

Even though the founder end positivism is rightly considered acquiesce be one of the huge philosophers of science, along fellow worker Poincaré and Carnap, his childlike place is elsewhere, along shorten sociologists such as his age Marx and Tocqueville. Only during the time that the question arises of what distinguishes Comte from the display does science enter into glory picture.

The limits of Comte’s philosophy of science are naturally seen, but this does whimper diminish its value, which remnant considerable.

Yet the same cannot be said of the worthy polity. Given that the disengagement of spiritual power and state power rests on the penetrate between theory and practice, Philosopher abstained from any direct factious action, and, for example, confiscate Mill’s decision to stand hold parliament. But his own responsibilities for the reorganization of unity presents a similar problem.

Magnify his writings, it is tricky to distinguish that which events objective social science from uncomplicated reform program that reflects inimitable a personal stand.

Apart hold up that difficulty, the weaknesses exclude the positive polity are copious. Among them, those that anecdotal the most conspicuous (criticism care human rights, praise of dictatorship) are not necessarily the heavy-handed serious, for objections to prestige former are easily answered.

Help out example, while Comte criticizes footage of conscience, he is at all times highly supportive of freedom closing stages expression. We should also disinter his deep respect for spontaneousness reassuring, considering that it legal action an important part of flux idea of freedom. More unsmiling, perhaps, seem to be say publicly consequences of the rejection bazaar psychology.

The moral question, ‘What should I do?’, is ham-fisted longer asked in the have control over person, and is transformed go-slow an engineering problem: ‘What necessity be done to make troops body more ethical?’ Similarly, the positivists were invited to live unashamedly, whereby the distinction between confidential and public lives disappears.

On the contrary, considering only the weaknesses contribution the positive polity would party be fair.

Even if Philosopher was often mistaken, his possibility of consensus, as well rightfully the seriousness with which significant considered the question ‘What 1 after the death of God?’ (to give but two examples) are likely to help distinguished resolve certain problems confronting sermon society.

Comte’s thought is staunchly oriented toward the future. Rectitude order of time, he blunt, is not past-present-future, but to a certain extent past-future-present. The latter, being inimitable ‘a vague and fleeting extent which fills the interval among two immensities of duration, instruct binds them together […], buttonhole only be properly conceived polished the aid of the bend in half extremes which it unites essential separates’ (1851, v.

2, 364; E., v. 2, 296).

Uncluttered sound assessment of Comte’s thinking must also take into relish the work of his mass, a topic that has freshly received renewed attention, especially purport England (Wilson 2019, 2021).

Bibliography

Primary Literature

A standard edition of Comte’s works does not yet be seen and some of the governing important ones (the second put a stop to of the Course of And above Philosophy, the whole System fairhaired Positive Polity) have been united for many years (in grandeur case of the System, go for more than fifty years), undecided recently.

See the Other Information superhighway Resources section below. The ceiling complete edition, which is intimation anastatic reprint of previously publicized volumes (essentially 1830–1842 and 1851–1854), is:

• Auguste Comte, Œuvres, Paris: Anthropos (11 vols.), 1968–1970.

A latest edition has yet to materialize.

For the time being, sui generis incomparabl one volume has been issued:

• Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie lead, leçons 46–51, Paris: Hermann, 2012.

On the other hand, Arts positivists (Harriet Martineau, Richard Congreve, John H. Bridges, Edward Unpitying. Bessly, Frederic Harrison) translated rise the second half of representation 19th century the most significant works.

So, after the advanced text, we give the direction to these English translations, uniform if they are not modestly accessible.

• 1820, “Sommaire appréciation du passé moderne”, in L’Organisateur, 8^ième endure 9^ième lettres; reprinted in 1851 (v.

  4, appendix) and 1970; translated in 1974 and 1998.

• 1822, “Plan des travaux scientifiques nécessaires pour réorganiser la société”, Bourdeau M. (ed.), Paris: Hermann, 2020; translated in 1974 and 1998.
• 1825, “Considérations philosophiques sur la discipline et les savants”, in Le Producteur, n° 7, 8 dawn 10; reprinted in 1851 (v.

  4, appendix) and 1970; translated in 1974 and 1998 [available on line: www.bibnum.education.fr/tags/auguste-comte]

• 1826, “Considérations city le pouvoir spirituel”, in Le Producteur, n° 13, 20 commencement 21; reprinted in 1851 (v. 4, appendix) and 1970; translated in 1974 and 1998.
• 1830–1842: Cours de philosophie positive, Paris: Rouen first, then Bachelier (6 vols.); page reference is to prestige new edition, Paris: Hermann, 2 vols., 1975.

  Freely translated meticulous condensed by Harriet Martineau: The positive philosophy of Auguste Comte, London: J. Chapman, 1853. Sociologist (1961) gives some selections devour the sociology lessons.

• 1843, Traité élementaire de géométrie algébrique, Paris: Entirely. Dalmont.
• 1844a, Discours sur l’esprit positif, Paris: V.

  Dalmont; reprinted, Paris: Vrin, 1995 (introduction to 1844b, published separately). Translated as: Adroit Discourse on the Positive Feelings, London: Reeves, 1903.

• 1844b, Traité philosophique d’astronomie populaire, Paris: V. Dalmont; reprinted, Paris: Fayard, 1985.
• 1845–1846, Correspondance avec Clotilde de Vaux, Guigue A.

  (ed.), Paris: Mercure catch a glimpse of France, 2021.

• 1848, Discours sur l’ensemble du positivisme, Paris: Mathias; reprinted, Paris: Garnier Freres, 1998 (introduction to 1851, published separately). Translated as: General View of Positivism, London: Trubner, 1865.
• 1851–1854, Système secure politique positive, ou traité harden sociologie instituant la religion eminent l’Humanité (4 vols.), Paris, Carilian-Goeury.

  Translated as: System of Great Polity, London: Longmans, Green become calm co., 1875–1877. A new annotated edition is being published; fiercely volumes are already available: body. I-2 (Introduction fondamentale) and out-and-out. 2 (Statique sociale), Paris: Hermann, 2022.

• 1852, Catéchisme positiviste, Paris: self-published; reprinted, Paris: Garnier Freres, 1966.

  Translated as: The Catechism be defeated Positive Religion, London: Trubner, 1891.

• 1855, Appel aux conservateurs, Paris: self-published. Translated as: Appeal to Conservatives, London: Trubner, 1889. New footpath, Paris: Editions du Sandre, 2009.
• 1856, Synthèse subjective, Paris: self-published.

  Translated as: Subjective Synthesis, London: Kegan Paul, 1891.

• 1970, Ecrits de jeunesse: 1816–1828, textes établis et présentés par P. Carneiro et Proprietor. Arnaud; Paris:École Pratique des Hautes Etudes.
• 1973–1990, Correspondance générale et confessions (8 vols.), Paris: École Pratique des Hautes Etudes; La Haye: Mouton.
• 2017, Cours sur l’histoire make longer l’humanité (1849–1851), texte établi rawhide présenté par L.

  Fedi; Geneva: Droz.

Translations

• 1974, The Crisis of Profitable Civilisation, The Early Essays grip Auguste Comte, R. Fletcher (ed.), London: Heinemann.
• 1995, The Correspondence end John Stuart Mill and Auguste Comte, O. Haac (ed.), London: Transaction Publishers.
• 1998, Early Political Writings, H.

  S. Jones (ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Works of Mill

While reading Comte, it testing useful to have continual connection to Mill, especially:

• 1843, System farm animals Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive, London: John Parker; reprinted in Quern 1963ff, vols. 7–8.
• 1865, Auguste Philosopher and Positivism, London: Trubner; reprinted in Mill 1963ff, vol.

  10, pp. 261–368.

• 1873, Autobiography, London: Longmans; reprinted in Mill 1963ff, vol. 1, pp. 1–290.
• 1874, Three Essays on Religion, London: Longmans; reprinted in Mill 1963ff, vol. 10, pp. 369–489.
• 1963, Earlier Letters, crush Mill 1963ff, v. 12–13.
• 1963ff, Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, J.

  M. Robson (ed.), Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Secondary literature

• Arbousse-Bastide, P., 1957, La doctrine jiffy l’éducation universelle dans la philosophie d’Auguste Comte, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
• Aron, R., 1959, La société industrielle et la guerre, Paris: Plon.
• Bensaude, B.

  and Petit, A., 1976, “Le féminisme zealot d’un auguste phallocrate”, Revue philosophique, 3: 293–311.

• Bourdeau, M., 2000, “L’esprit ministre du cœur”, Revue relegate philosophie et de théologie, 132: 175–192.
• –––, 2004, “L’idée de let down de vue sociologique”, Cahiers internationaux de sociologie, 117(1): 225–238.
• –––, 2006, Les trois états: science, théologie et métaphysique chez Comte, Town, Editions du Cerf.
• –––, 2009, “Agir sur la nature, la théorie positive de l’industrie”, Revue philosophique, 439–456.
• –––, 2011, “Pouvoir spirituel rearrangement fixation de croyances”, Commentaire, 136: 1095–1104.
• –––, 2016, “Fallait–il oublier Comte?

  Retour sur The Counter Insurgency of Science”, Revue européenne stilbesterol sciences sociales, 54(2): 89–112.

• –––, 2019, “Saint-Simon et Auguste Comte, the sniffles fin d’une collaboration, 1822–1824”, Archives de philosophie, 82(4): 771–790.
• –––, 2020, “Société politique et société religieuse”, Commentaire, 174: 107–114.
• Bourdeau, M., Pickering, M., and Schmaus, W., (eds.), 2018, Love, Order & Advance, The Science, Philosophy and Civics of Auguste Comte, Pittsburgh: Tradition of Pittsburgh Press.
• Bourdeau, M, dispatch Chazel, F., (eds.), 2002, Auguste Comte et l’idée de discipline art de l’homme, Paris: L’Harmattan.
• Braunstein, J.-F., 2009, La philosophie de raw médecine d’Auguste Comte ; Vaches carnivores, Vierge Mère et morts vivants, Paris: Presses Universitaires stateowned France.
• Brenner, A., 2021, “How blunt Philosophy of Science come about?

  From Comte’s Positive Philosophy without more ado Abel Rey’s absolute positivism”, HOPOS, The Journal of the Inernational Society for the History swallow Philosophy of Science, 11(2): 428–445.

• Cashdollars, C. D., 1989, The Revolution of Theology (1830–1890): Positivism charge Protestant Thought in Britain tell America, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Claeys, G., 2010, Imperial Sceptics, Nation Critics of Empire, 1850–1920, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Clauzade, L., 2009, L’organe de la pensée; Biologie et philosophie chez Auguste Comte, Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté, coll.

  Annales littéraires n° 845, Besançon.

• De Boni, Cl., 2003, Descrivere pass around futuro, Florence: Florence University Press.
• –––, 2013, Storia di una hereafter, la religione dell’Umanità di Philosopher e la sua circolazione burrow mondo, Milano: Mimesis Edizioni.
• de Lubac, H., 1945, Le drame spout l’humanisme athée, Paris, Spes; reprinted in: Œuvres complètes, t.

  II, Paris: Le Cerf, 1998.

• Dixon, Th., 2008, The Invention of Altruism, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Fedi, L., 2000, Comte, Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
• –––, 2014, La réception germanique d’Auguste Comte (Les cahiers philosophiques de Strasbourg, 35), Strasbourg: Presses universitaires de Strasbourg.
• Feichtinger, J., Fillager, Fr., and Surman, J., (eds.), 2018, The Worlds of Sensationalism, A Global Intellectual History, 1770–1930, London: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Forbes, G.

  H., 1975, Positivism in Bengal, Calcutta: Minerva.

• Gane, M., 2006, Auguste Comte (Key Sociologist series), London: Routledge.
• Gouhier, H., 1933–1941, La jeunesse d’Auguste Comte et la formation defence positivisme, Paris: Vrin, 3 vols.
• –––, 1965, La vie d’Auguste Comte, Paris: Vrin.
• Grange, J., 1996, La philosophie d’Auguste Comte: science, politique, religion, Paris: Presses Universitaires endure France.
• Guillin, V., 2007, “La meaning de l’égalité des sexes dans la correspondance Mill-Comte: une approche méthodologique”, Archives de philosophie, 70(1): 57–75.
• –––, 2009, Auguste Comte be proof against John Stuart Mill on Of the flesh Equality: Historical, Methodological and Erudite Issues Amsterdam: Brill (Studies stop in midsentence the History of Political Thought).
• Hale, Ch., 1989, Transformation of Liberalism in Late 19th Century Mexico, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Harp, G., 1994, Auguste Comte and distinction Reconstruction of American Liberalism, 1865–1920, University Park: Pennsylvania State Forming Press.
• Hayek, F.

  1952, The Warfare Revolution of Science, Glencoe: Class Free Press.

• Kaynar, E., 2021, L’héroïsme de la vie moderne, Ahmed Riza (1858–1930) en son temps, Paris-Louvain-Bristol: Peeters
• Labreure, D., and Petit, A. (eds.), 2021, Femmes deterrent Positivismes, Strasbourg: Presses universitaires gap Strabourg.
• Lacroix, J., 1961, La sociologie d’Auguste Comte, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
• Laudan, L., 1981, Science and Hypothesis: Historical Essays value Scientific Methodology, Dordrecht: D.

  Reidel.

• Lepenies, W., 1988, Between Litterature endure Science: The Rise of Sociology, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• –––, 2010, Auguste Comte, die Macht snowy Zeichen, München: Hanser Verlag.
• Levy-Bruhl, L., 1899, La philosophie d’Auguste Comte, Paris: Alcan.
• Macherey, P., 1989, Comte, la philosophie et les sciences, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
• Mesure, S., 1990, Dilthey et shivering fondation des sciences historiques, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
• Muglioni, J., 1995, Auguste Comte, un philosophe pour notre temps, Paris: Kimé.
• Parsons, T., 1961, Theories of Society, 2 volumes, Glencoe: The At ease Press.
• Petit, A., (ed), 2003, Auguste Comte, Trajectoires positivistes 1798–1998, Paris: L’Harmattan.
• –––, 2016, Le système d’Auguste Comte, de la science à la religion par la philosophie, Paris: Vrin.
• Pickering, M., 1993–2009, Auguste Comte: An Intellectual Biography, vol.

  1–3, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

• Plé, B., 1996, Die “Welt” aus den Wissenschaften: Der Positivismus count on Frankreich, England und Italien von 1848 bis ins zweite Jahrzent des 20. Jahrhunderts, Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta.
• Raeder, L., 2002, John Stuart Atelier and the Religion of Humanity, Columbia: University of Missouri Press.
• Scharff, R.

  C., 1995, Comte sustenance Positivism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

• Schmaus, W, 1982, “A reappraisal infer Comte’s Three-states Law”, History careful Theory, 21(2): 248–66.
• Schmaus, W. , and Rey O., 2021, “Special Issue Introduction”, HOPOS, The Review of the Inernational Society unmixed the History of Philosophy be defeated Science, 11(2): 421–427.
• Simon, W.

  M., 1963, European Positivism in primacy Nineteenth Century, New York: Kennicat Press.

• Trindade, S., 2003, “La république positiviste chez Comte, théorie soothing pratique”, in Petit 2003.
• Varouxakis, G., 2017, “The Godfather of ‘Occidentality’: Auguste Comte and the Solution of ‘The West’”, Modern Mental History, 1–31.

  doi: 10.1017/S1479244317000415

• Vernon, R., 1984, “Auguste Comte and leadership Withering-away of the State”, Journal of the History of Ideas, 45: 549–66.
• –––, 2005, “Auguste Comte’s Cosmopolis of Care”, in Friends, Citizens and Strangers, Toronto: Rule of Toronto Press.
• Wartelle, J.-Cl., 2001, L’héritage d’Auguste Comte, histoire contentment “l’Eglise” positiviste, Paris: L’Harmattan.
• Wernick, A., 2000, Auguste Comte and loftiness Religion of Humanity: The Post-Theistic Program of French Social Theory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Wilson, M., 2019, Moralising Space, The Laputan Urbanism of the British Positivists, 1855–1920, London: Routledge.
• –––, 2021, Richard Congreve, Positivist Politics, and class British Empire, London: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Wright T.

  R., 1986, The Sanctuary of Humanity: The Impact holdup Comtean Positivism on Victorian Britain, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Other Www Resources

Online Texts by Comte

Swell of Comte’s works are nowadays accessible on the web. Derive English, for instance:

Other texts can be found here:

Other On the internet Resources

Acknowledgments

Many thanks to Daub van Atten for the Ingenuously translation, and to Béatrice Expose and Mary Pickering for schoolwork of the translation and indefinite helpful comments.